These authors assessed patients who underwent arthroplasty of the shoulder in the USA between January 2011 and December 2015 from the National Readmission Database for 90-day
readmissions and complications.
Smoking was identified using the ICD-9 code: 305.1(tobacco use disorder). Patients who did not have this diagnostic code were treated as non-smokers, either not smoking or never
having done so. Two groups of patients were then created: non-tobacco users (NT) and active tobacco users (AT).
A total of 196,325 non-smokers (93.1%) and 14,461 smokers (6.9%) underwent TSA during
the five-year study period. Smokers had significantly increased rates of 30- and 90-day
readmission (p = 0.025 and 0.001, respectively), revision within 90 days (p < 0.001), infection (p < 0.001), wound complications (p < 0.001), and instability of the prosthesis (p < 0.001).
They were also at significantly greater risk of suffering from pneumonia (p < 0.001), sepsis
(p = 0.001), and myocardial infarction (p < 0.001), postoperatively.
Comment: The results of this study are consistent with those from prior studies (see below), however this study
(1) does not quantify the dose-adverse effect relationship between smoking and outcome (i.e. it seems that one cigarette a day smokers were lumped in with 4 pack a day smokers)
(2) does not qualify the effect of the smoking free interval prior to surgery (i.e. it appears to lump patients who have not smoked for 3 days with those that have not smoked in three years) and
(3) does not demonstrate that the smoking habit is "modifiable" (i.e. if a patient is smoking, what is the success rate of getting that person off smoking for an effective period of time?)
Smoking is associated with increased surgical complications following total shoulder arthroplasty: an analysis of 14,465 patients
These authors evaluated the association between smoking and postoperative complications in 14,465 patients having total shoulder arthroplasty using the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database from 2005 through 2016; 10.5% were active smokers. Smokers were more likely to be younger, to be female patients, and to have a lower body mass index compared with nonsmokers (P < .001).
These authors evaluated the association between smoking and postoperative complications in 14,465 patients having total shoulder arthroplasty using the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database from 2005 through 2016; 10.5% were active smokers. Smokers were more likely to be younger, to be female patients, and to have a lower body mass index compared with nonsmokers (P < .001).
Univariate analysis demonstrated that smoking was not associated with postoperative medical complications (P >.05) but was associated with a three fold increased risk of overall surgical complications(<.001).
Multivariate modeling showed that smoking was associated with a 7 fold increased risk wound complications and a 2 fold increase in surgical-site infections.
Comment: Individuals who smoke have two important features: (1) they are less healthy than non smokers and (2) they may care less about their health than non smokers. In our practice, we do not perform elective surgery on individuals who have smoked within the prior 3 months.
Smoking has often been made to seem glamorous
but it not only compromises health, but also is a marker for individuals that tend to put themselves at increased risk.
The results of this study are consistent with some others (see below).
These authors identified 163 patients with primary anatomic total shoulders performed for glenohumeral arthritis and divided them into 3 groups: current tobacco users (28), nonusers (88), and former users (47). Former tobacco users were defined as patients who reported cessation of tobacco use longer than 3 months before their initial surgical evaluation.
Patients in the current tobacco use group had
(1) significantly higher visual analog scale scores preoperatively and at 12 weeks postoperatively
(2) less improvement in visual analog scale scores
(3) higher cumulative oral morphine equivalent use at 12 weeks and higher average oral morphine equivalent per day
They concluded that although length of stay, complication rates, hospital readmissions, and reoperation rates were not significantly different, tobacco users reported increased postoperative pain and narcotic use in the global period after TSA. Former tobacco users were found to have a postoperative course similar to that of nonusers, suggesting that discontinuation of tobacco use can improve a patient’s episode of care performance after TSA.
Interested readers may want to review information on smoking previously posted:
Interested readers may want to review information on smoking previously posted:
Smoking Increases the Rate of Reoperation for Infection within 90 Days After Primary Total Joint Arthroplasty
These authors sought to investigate the association between smoking and readmission and/or reoperation within 90 days of total joint arthroplasty among 15,264 patients (6,749 male and 8,515 female) who underwent 17,394 primary total joint arthroplasties between 2000 and 2014. Of these patients, 1,371 (9.0%) were current smokers, 5,195 (34.0%) were former smokers, and 8,698 (57.0%) were nonsmokers. Former smokers reported a median of 22.2 years (range, 0.2 to 60 years) of abstinence prior to the surgical procedure.
These authors sought to investigate the association between smoking and readmission and/or reoperation within 90 days of total joint arthroplasty among 15,264 patients (6,749 male and 8,515 female) who underwent 17,394 primary total joint arthroplasties between 2000 and 2014. Of these patients, 1,371 (9.0%) were current smokers, 5,195 (34.0%) were former smokers, and 8,698 (57.0%) were nonsmokers. Former smokers reported a median of 22.2 years (range, 0.2 to 60 years) of abstinence prior to the surgical procedure.
Current smokers were significantly younger (57.7± 10.3 years) than nonsmokers (63.2± 11.8 years).
Current smokers were significantly more likely than nonsmokers to undergo reoperation for infection (odds ratio [OR], 1.82 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.03 to 3.23]; p = 0.04).
Former smokers were not at significantly increased risk (OR, 1.11 [95% CI, 0.73 to 1.69]; p = 0.61).
Packs per decade were independently associated with an increased risk of 90-day nonoperative readmission regardless of smoking status (OR, 1.12 [95% CI, 1.03 to 1.20]).
Comment: This well controlled study indicates that in this cohort, active smoking almost doubled the risk of reoperation for infection. In that total joint arthroplasty is an elective procedure and in that smoking is a voluntary activity, surgeons need to consider whether it is reasonable to perform joint replacement on active smokers. We suggest that smoking is not only directly harmful to the patient's health, but it is also an indication of a patient's apparent disregard for their own well-being.
We've discussed this phenomenon in prior posts:
These authors reviewed 1834 shoulders in 1614 patients (814 smokers and 1020 nonsmokers) having primary TSA or RSA at the Mayo Clinic between 2002 and 2011 and had a minimum 2-year follow-up. Smoking status was assessed at the time of surgery: non-smokers, former smokers (no smoking in the month before surgery), and current smokers (smoking within a month before surgery).
Complications occurred 4% of the cases, 5.4 % in smokers and 3.0 % in non smokers.
Multivariable analyses showed that
-in comparison to non-smokers, the risk of periprosthetic infection was 7.3 times higher in current smokers and 4.6 times higher in former smokers.
-in comparison to non-smokers, the risk of postoperative fracture was 7 times higher in current smokers.
The overall complication-free survival rate for the three groups is shown below.
Comment: It is of interest that 44% percent of the patients in this series were classified as smokers. It is also of interest that the risk of postoperative fracture was dramatically less in those that had stopped smoking a month or more prior to surgery, whereas the effect of smoking cession was less pronounced for the risk of infection.
These authors reviewed 1834 shoulders in 1614 patients (814 smokers and 1020 nonsmokers) having primary TSA or RSA at the Mayo Clinic between 2002 and 2011 and had a minimum 2-year follow-up. Smoking status was assessed at the time of surgery: non-smokers, former smokers (no smoking in the month before surgery), and current smokers (smoking within a month before surgery).
Complications occurred 4% of the cases, 5.4 % in smokers and 3.0 % in non smokers.
Multivariable analyses showed that
-in comparison to non-smokers, the risk of periprosthetic infection was 7.3 times higher in current smokers and 4.6 times higher in former smokers.
-in comparison to non-smokers, the risk of postoperative fracture was 7 times higher in current smokers.
The overall complication-free survival rate for the three groups is shown below.
Comment: It is of interest that 44% percent of the patients in this series were classified as smokers. It is also of interest that the risk of postoperative fracture was dramatically less in those that had stopped smoking a month or more prior to surgery, whereas the effect of smoking cession was less pronounced for the risk of infection.
The interested reader will also want to check out these two related posts:
Cigarette smoking affects bone, cuff repair, surgical risk and more
Pain and smoking
Cigarette smoking affects bone, cuff repair, surgical risk and more
Pain and smoking
as well as this article:
Tobacco use is associated with increased rates of infection and revision surgery after primary superior labrum anterior and posterior repair.
These authors used the PearlDiver Patient Records Database, a for-fee insurance-based database of patient records, to explore the relationship between tobacco use and the adverse outcomes of arthroscopic superior labrum anterior and posterior (SLAP) repairs. The cohort of primary SLAP repairs was then divided into tobacco use and non–tobacco use cohorts using ICD-9 code 305.1 (tobacco use disorder). It is not known how accurate this coding is and how it reflects the different uses of tobacco (inhaled, chewed, etc).
They found that the incidences of revision SLAP repair or revision to a biceps tenodesis (P = .023) and postoperative infection (P = .034) were significantly higher in patients who used tobacco versus matched controls.
They suggest that tobacco’s negative effects on poor wound healing and the development of postoperative infection may results from a combination of factors. "On a cellular level, tobacco use reduces cutaneous blood flow, impairing soft tissue oxygenation, resulting in increased anaerobic metabolism in healing tissues. Simultaneously, thrombi are generated as a result of increased platelet aggregation, which compounds an already hypoxic environment, leading to decreased healing potential. This reduced perfusion impairs the delivery of critical lymphocytes to areas undergoing healing or prone to infection. Furthermore, systemic nicotine has been shown to have a negative immunomodulatory effect on T-cell function, resulting in cells that are more susceptible to infectious pathogens. Finally, and perhaps most specific to tendon healing required for a successful SLAP repair, the synthesis of collagen has been shown to be greatly impeded in smokers, leading to impaired wound and soft-tissue healing."
Tobacco use is associated with increased rates of infection and revision surgery after primary superior labrum anterior and posterior repair.
These authors used the PearlDiver Patient Records Database, a for-fee insurance-based database of patient records, to explore the relationship between tobacco use and the adverse outcomes of arthroscopic superior labrum anterior and posterior (SLAP) repairs. The cohort of primary SLAP repairs was then divided into tobacco use and non–tobacco use cohorts using ICD-9 code 305.1 (tobacco use disorder). It is not known how accurate this coding is and how it reflects the different uses of tobacco (inhaled, chewed, etc).
They found that the incidences of revision SLAP repair or revision to a biceps tenodesis (P = .023) and postoperative infection (P = .034) were significantly higher in patients who used tobacco versus matched controls.
They suggest that tobacco’s negative effects on poor wound healing and the development of postoperative infection may results from a combination of factors. "On a cellular level, tobacco use reduces cutaneous blood flow, impairing soft tissue oxygenation, resulting in increased anaerobic metabolism in healing tissues. Simultaneously, thrombi are generated as a result of increased platelet aggregation, which compounds an already hypoxic environment, leading to decreased healing potential. This reduced perfusion impairs the delivery of critical lymphocytes to areas undergoing healing or prone to infection. Furthermore, systemic nicotine has been shown to have a negative immunomodulatory effect on T-cell function, resulting in cells that are more susceptible to infectious pathogens. Finally, and perhaps most specific to tendon healing required for a successful SLAP repair, the synthesis of collagen has been shown to be greatly impeded in smokers, leading to impaired wound and soft-tissue healing."
Comment: The same factors that impair success in SLAP repairs must apply to the healing of rotator cuff repairs, Bankart repairs and subscapularis healing in In addition to its effect on healing (see this link), tobacco use is also associated with increased pain (another cause of 'surgical failure') as shown here and here .
The prior post also emphasizes the risk.
There is another association of importance than may account for some of the surgical failures in smokers, and that is the observation that smokers tend to take more risks than non-smokers (see this post). Here is a compelling quote from that article.
"The fact that smoking is bad for people’s health has become common knowledge, yet a substantial amount of people still smoke. Previous studies that sought to better understand this phenomenon have found that smoking is associated with the tendency to take risk in other areas of life as well. The current paper explores factors that may underlie this tendency. An experimental analysis shows that smokers are more easily tempted by immediate high rewards compared to nonsmokers. Thus the salience of risky alternatives that produce large rewards most of the time can direct smokers to make bad choices even in an abstract situation such as the Iowa Gambling Task. These findings suggest that the risk taking behavior associated with smoking is not related to the mere pursuit of rewards but rather reflects a tendency to yield to immediate temptation."
The prior post also emphasizes the risk.
There is another association of importance than may account for some of the surgical failures in smokers, and that is the observation that smokers tend to take more risks than non-smokers (see this post). Here is a compelling quote from that article.
"The fact that smoking is bad for people’s health has become common knowledge, yet a substantial amount of people still smoke. Previous studies that sought to better understand this phenomenon have found that smoking is associated with the tendency to take risk in other areas of life as well. The current paper explores factors that may underlie this tendency. An experimental analysis shows that smokers are more easily tempted by immediate high rewards compared to nonsmokers. Thus the salience of risky alternatives that produce large rewards most of the time can direct smokers to make bad choices even in an abstract situation such as the Iowa Gambling Task. These findings suggest that the risk taking behavior associated with smoking is not related to the mere pursuit of rewards but rather reflects a tendency to yield to immediate temptation."
Now here's a quiz. This paper comes from Virginia. Can you name the top five tobacco producing states in order? The answer can be found here.
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